Sales training Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Sales training - Essay Example Three different power points will be created for the morning session, after break session and after lunch lecture. The first power point will cover the definition of sales, its goals, roles, direction and the focus of selling. This will be accomplished with a minimum of 25 slides with comprehensive speaker notes at the bottom. A minimum of 5 images must be used to show marketing dialogue, the role of sales and any related topic idea. The second power point will outline and map the sales process and images depicting models of selling will be included. For the last session, the power point presentation will cover, in a minimum of 15 slides a reflection of the video that will be used to induce hands-on experience in selling (Amy 79). All power points will be colorful and animated and questions must be used at each stage to evoke critical thinking from trainees. A laptop, projector and white board will be availed for the purpose of this training session. Video A sales marketing video wil l be obtained from youtube.com and will be availed in the last session. The video will cover field marketing and will present different scenarios that are likely to be experienced during training. Person to person sales and making sales in a conference will be two scenarios that will be captured in the video. The CD will be provided and played through the laptop. Evaluating the Learners After the three lecture sessions, a questionnaire will be handed to the trainees and they will be required to respond to the questions. Questionnaire method is superior in obtaining quick responses from the trainees as all of them respond at the same time. The questionnaire will test on the sales skills that the learner acquired and the possible methods of tackling specific problems in the marketing field. The test will continue a marketing scenario to test the learner abilities to employ effective marketing approaches in different marketing situations. Guidance Session Timing Trainer Guidance Traine e Guidance Lesson 1 1 hour 30 minutes Must emphasize definition, and mechanics of selling. questionss in power points must be asked to student. Remain interesting, use speaker note to explain Take notes, participate, ask questions Lesson 2 1hr 30 minutes Outlining and mapping of sales covered Refer to Ppt speaker notes Use questions at each point Engage learners Trainees get back to their seating positions. Note taking of crucial points Lesson 3 1hr 30 minutes The teacher will play the video twice, and then use the power point to reflect on the video. Interactive questions. Every trainee presents their opinion on the scenarios depicted in the movie Note the various key skills in marketing The timeline of the lesson will be reviewed after the first lesson. It may be wise to reduce the time for the second session and increase that of the last session as the interactive session is expected to take more time. Formative Revisions Formative revisions help to obtain information to help str eamline the instructional methods (Tuttle 122). During the instruction process, a critical observation of the training session will be engaged. The time taken to deliver the whole content designed for each lesson will be assessed. Also, the participation of the trainees will be engaged and

Art Class Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Art Class - Essay Example American art tend to be more inclined towards presenting self-determination, achievement and liberation of the colonies. However, American art was always overshadowed by the European art and was popular at that time contrary to popular belief. Consequently, Romanticism focused more on emotions, paint textures, and highlights to truly capture the heart of action and emotion. American art is more modern compared to the Renaissance art and European art. The American colonial period consisted of portraits as colonists wanted to establish their identity in the new world. Undoubtedly, this picture is not achromatic as it uses very light colors. From my perspective, it seems as if it is American art since it is very cosmopolitan. There are countless ways of describing a work of art and great depths of one’s expressions and mines of creativity In this particular image, the artist clearly has been extremely creative from every angle and touch. This graphic is a great image as it depicts a typical hand brush that is utilized for cleaning purposes. The brush itself is painted in a very elegant manner with amazing finish. Every bristle is clear and gives the feeling of cleanliness to the audience. Furthermore, the bristles variation in color is a clear depiction of a unique style that the artist has embraced. From my perspective, it seems that the bristles are made using very thin rods of sheets that are strong and durable. The most interesting aspect about this image is the fact that the bristles are very clear. The dustbin in this image is blue and resembles the one that is used for regular housecleaning purposes. The background colors are very solid and in essence truly bring the hue of light and dark c olors. The assimilation of colors is truly the embodiment of modern day art with clear pixels and each color dot being unique. Truly, the brushing was conducted in an elusive manner which

Leadership Theories Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Leadership Theories - Essay Example ing and scanning the environment, coaching people working under him, making regular input in the work of subordinates, and managing activities (Hackman & Wageman, 2005). Transactional theory argues that a leader should have power and formal position which is used to control, reward, and punish employees. Leadership is seen as a give and take between leader and his subordinates. This theory calls for a leader to make sure that employees are motivated enough to perform at their highest potential. Transformational theory is focused more on understanding employees and treating them with respect in order to achieve good results. This theory does not see leadership as merely a transaction between two parties but much more than that. This theory argues that a leader’s job is to make an environment that is feasible for work and in which employees are able to work together like a well oiled machine. A leader works to develop this environment and then the rest is done by employees. Contingency theory takes on a different view and argues that effective leadership is heavily dependent on factors like environment and technology (Woodward, 1958). A good leader has to evaluate the environment and make decisions accordingly. According to this theory, there is no set outline that a good leader can follow instead he or she has to decide differently on a case by case basis. The theory that best outlines effective leadership in an organization is the transformational leadership theory. This theory calls for motivating employees and giving them power and independence. This theory gives importance to subordinates and views them as assets. This is why transformational theory of leadership is the best and can help foster effective leadership in an

Image Pre-compensation for Ocular Aberrations

Image Pre-compensation for Ocular Aberrations Introduction Motivation On-screen image pre-compensation has good prospect with the increasing usage of various display screen devices in our daily life. Comparing to glasses, contact glasses and ocular surgery, on-screen image pre-compensation can be easily carried out by computer calculation without any irreversible change in the eyes, as long as the ocular aberration is known. Further, since neither contact lenses nor glasses are advised to be worn all of the time, on screen pre-compensation could even supplement glasses and contact lens use. It is known that compensation for higher aberrations can lead to super-sight, which is the neural limit of human eye. On-screen compensation also has the prospect of achieving this with customized screens in the foreseeable future. Image Processing Theories Human Visual System The human visual system is the combination of the optical system of the eye, and the neural processing of the light information received [Roorda (2011)], in which the latter is out of the concern of this research. The optical system of the eye is an intricate construction including the pupil, cornea, retina and lens (see Fig.1). The light come through the pupil is refracted by the lens and make an inverse image on the retina. During this process, any deficit would cause aberrations. For instance, myopia may result from the lens that the refraction is too high or that the distance from the lens and retina is too long. Fig.1 Cross-section of eye structure There is a limit resolution dominated by the neural receptor on the retina, which is below the diffraction limit. Although even for normal emmetropic eyes the sight is below neural limit and diffraction limit due to the minor deficit of eye structure. [Austin (2011)] For eyes with refractive issues, caused by cornea or lens from an ideal spherical shape, the aberrations would significantly dominate over this limit. Thus, in the following research, we shall omit the neural limitation. To increase the efficiency in the following, we can simply model the eye structure as such: a lens (regarding the cornea and the lens as a whole) with an adjustable size (pupil size) and an image plane (retina). Point Spread Function and image quality As is stated in the previous section the aberrations would come from any deficit of eye structure. In order to quantify the distortion in mathematical means, we introduce the Point Spread Function (PSF). Fundamentally, the PSF is defined as a function describes the response of an imaging system to a point source or point object. Note that the loss of light would not be considered in the PSF. Then, if we consider the PSF does not change across the field of view, which applies to the central 1-2 ° of visual angle [Reference!!!], the image can be expressed by the convolution of the PSF and the object in this area. (1) Where denotes the convolution algorithm. Note that the deconvolution method is based on the inverse operation of Eq.1, which will be introduce in Section 1.2.4. Fig.2 A contrast of PSF and MTF of an ideal emmetropic eyes (up) and a typical myopic eyes of -1.00 dioptre (down) Now we introduce two functions that can show the quality of the image: Optical Transfer Function (OTF) and the Modulation Transfer Function (MTF). Either OTF or MTF specifies the response to a periodic sine-wave pattern passing through the lens system, as a function of its spatial frequency or period, and its orientation [WIKI]. The OTF is the Fourier transform of the PSF, and the MTF is the real magnitude of the OTF. In a 2d system, these two functions are defined as: (2) Where denotes the Fourier transform, and denote the phase space and Euclidian space, respectively. (3) Where means taking the absolute value. Zernike Polynomials The Zernike polynomials are a sequence of polynomials that are orthogonal over circular pupils. Some of the polynomials are related to classical aberrations. In optometry and ophthalmology, Zernike polynomials are the standard way to describe aberrations of the cornea or lens from an ideal spherical shape, which result in refraction errors [WIKI]. The definition of orthogonal Zernike Polynomials recommended in an ANSI standard is represented as: (4) Where m and n denote the radial degree and the azimuthal frequency, respectively. The radial polynomials are defined as: And the triangular functions: (6) Note that nm and nm must be even. The relationship between double index (m, n) and single index (i): Table.1 Eye aberrations presented by Zernike Polynomials Aberrations are expressed as the distortion of the wavefront as it passes through the eye. As is stated, Zernike polynomials are the standard way [Campbell (2003)] of quantifying this distortion. The aperture function (or pupil function) can link Zernike polynomials with the PSF: Where denotes complex aperture function (or pupil function). denotes the phase of the wavefront, and the i is the imaginary unit and denotes the amplitude function, which is usually one inside the circular pupil and zero on the outside. The PSF can be expressed as the square of Fourier transform of the complex aperture function: We now know that the PSF can be calculated with a known wavefront and the distortion of the wavefront caused by refractive error can be actually represented by several orders of Zernike Polynomials with different amplitudes, which can be precisely measured with a Shack-Hartmann wavefront analyser device. Deconvolution Method We introduce a way to pre-process the image to neutralize the aberration caused by eyes, which is also called image pre-compensation. Simplistically, to compensate them in advance to proactively counteract degradations resulting from the ocular aberrations of different users. Point Spread Function (PSF) is defined as a function describes the response of an imaging system to a point source or point object. The sinusoidal function is an eigenstate of the PSF (i.e. if the input image is a sinusoidal function, no matter what the PSF is, the output image would also be a sinusoidal function) The Image on the retina (or) can be linked with PSF by convolution as shown in Eq.1. Then we do Fourier transform on both side of the equation Note the convolution has changed to multiplication in the phase space. If we define a new OBJ as: The new image is This means If we can process the OBJ as defined, we will have the intended image in the observers eyes. To form the OBJ we introduce Minimum Mean Square Error filtering (or Wiener Filter) Where K is a constant. Computing Theories Fast Fourier Transform As is shown in previous sections, we use two algorithms that require an amount of calculation, which is Fourier transform (inverse Fourier transform) and convolution. Since computer images can be seen as 2-demension lattices, we will use 2d Discrete Fourier Transform: It is known that this process requires a significant amount of calculation. The conventional way of doing this would take a long time for regular PC. However, for research need, we will need to do this calculation in real-time. Thus, we introduce the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). A definition of FFT could be: An FFT is an algorithm computes the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) of a sequence or its inverse. Fourier analysis converts a signal from its original domain (often time or space) to representation in the frequency domain and vice versa. An FFT rapidly computes such transformations by factorizing the DFT matrix into a product of sparse (mostly zero) factors. [Van Loan (1992)] Also, all convolution within our program will be calculated by means of the FFT through the following equation: (16) Fig.3 A contrast of the speed of two means of calculation with respect of data length. The purpose of doing so is to accelerate the speed of calculation, since the conventional way of calculating convolution is much slower than the FFT. This difference of speed is shown in Fig.3. Nyquist Limit As is stated, we need the image and the PSF to before doing the pre-compensation. The PSF is calculated by aperture function Eq.9. To simulate the pupil, we can use a circular apertureà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. However, this circular pupil has some restrictions in computer simulation, which is the Nyquist limit. In signal processing if we If we want to reconstruct all Fourier components of a periodic waveform, there is a restriction that the sampling rate needs to be at least twice the highest waveform frequency. The Nyquist limit, also known as Nyquist frequency, is the highest frequency that can be coded at a given sampling rate in order to be able to fully reconstruct the signal, which is half of the sampling rate of a discrete signal processing system. [Cramà ©r Grenander (1959)] For our simulation the sampling rate n is represented as: Aliasing will occur when . Psychometric Theories In order to quantify the enhancement of the Deconvolution Method to the subjects, we need to measure the change of the thresholds of the eyes before and after the compensation. Specifically, in our research we need to find out the threshold of minimum contrast and size of an image that the subjects can correctly recognize. This requires the use of some psychometric theories. Adaptive Staircase Method The staircase method is a widely used method in psychophysics test. The point of staircase method is to adjust the intensity of stimuli according to the response of the participant. To illustrate this method we shall use an example introduced by Cronsweet (1962): Suppose the problem is to determine Ss absolute, intensive threshold for the sound of a click. The first stimulus that E delivers is a click of some arbitrary intensity. S responds either that he did or did not hear it. If S says yes (he did hear it), the next stimulus is made less intense, and if S says no, the second stimulus is made more intense. If S responds yes to the second stimulus, the third is made less intense, and if he says no, it is made more intense. This procedure is simply continued until some predetermined criterion or number of trials is reached. The results of a series of 30 trials are shown in Fig.4. The results may be recorded directly on graph-paper; doing so helps E keep the procedure straight. Fig. 4 An example trail by Cornsweet (1962) There are four important characteristic of adaptive staircase method (1) Starting value; (2) Step-size; (3) Stopping condition; and (4) Modification of step-sizes. [Cornsweet 1962] The starting value should be near the threshold value. As is shown in Fig.4, the starting point determines how many step until it reach a level that near the threshold. The test will be most efficient if the starting value is near to that threshold. The step-size is 1 db for the example test. Step-size should meet the requirement that it is neither too big that not able to measure the threshold accurately nor too small to slow down the test process. It is advised that the step-size would be the most effective when it is the size of the differential threshold. The result with the staircase method would be like Fig.4 in general when it hover around a certain level of intensity of stimuli. When reached this asymptotic level, the trails should be taken into account. An efficient way is to set a number of trails that need to be record and start to count after it reach the asymptotic level. Under some conditions, the step-size need to be changed during the test. For careful experimental design, the first stimulus in each of the staircases are at same intensity-level. [Cornsweet 1962] However, then the staring level would be too far from the final level. This can be avoided by using large steps at the start, and smaller steps when it approach the final level. For instance, this can be done by decrease the step from 3db to 1db at the third reversal. It should be stated that the adaptive staircase method is a very efficient way of measurement. For a given reliability of a computed threshold-value, the staircase-method requires the presentation of many fewer stimuli than any other psychophysical method. Related Work General image compensation has long been used since the invention of lens. The invention of the computer and portable display devices make it easier to perform on-screen image pre-compensation. On-screen compensation has the advantage of convenience in that it can easily be carried out with any display-screen device that can compute. In addition, acuity limits in the human vision on the fovea are found to be between 0.6 and 0.25 arc minutes [Schwiegerling 2000], which is better than the typical acuity of emmetropic eyes [Pamplona 2012]. This means that effective compensation may increase the performance of emmetropic eyes. Deconvolution Method On screen image pre-compensation is based on the idea that the aberrations can be neutralized by pre-compensating the object. Specifically, it requires dividing the Fourier transform of uncorrected image by the Fourier transform of the PSF (i.e. the OTF). A detailed derivation can be found at section1.2.4. Early research by Alonso and Barreto (2003) tested subjects with defocus aberration using this method. Their results showed an improvement in observers visual acuity compared to non-corrected images. However, in practical use, for example, defocus, the defocus magnitude (in dioptres) as well as the pupil size, wavelength and viewing distance (visual angle) is required to calculate and scale the PSF, which means measurement and substitution of these parameters are also required to deliver the intended compensation. Enhancement of Deconvolution Method Recent research has further improved the deconvolution method. Huang et al (2012) carried out work with dynamic image compensation. They fixed the viewing distance from the screen and measured the real-time pupil size with the help of a Tobii T60 eye tracker device. Then they compensated the image with this real-time pupil size data. The reliability and acuity were improved by this dynamic compensation. Unlike perfect eyes, for which bigger pupil size would lead to smaller diffraction limited PSF, for most eyes, a bigger pupil size would lead to an increase in aberrations. That is also why dynamic compensation is important. As is mentioned in previous section, the principle of pre-compensation is to divide the Fourier transform of the image by the Fourier transform of the OTF. In order to avoid near-zero values in the OTF, most of the research used Minimum Mean Square Error filtering (Wiener filter). However, the outcome usually suffers from an apparent loss of contrast. Recent research has revealed other ways to optimize the compensation to have higher contrast and sharper boundaries. The multi-domain approach was introduced by Alonso Jr et al. (2006). They claimed that there are unnecessary parts in pre-compensated image. Simplistically, there is compensation that is irrelevant with respect to the important information in the image. This work showed an improvement of acuity using this method with respect to recognising text. More recently, Montalto et al. (2015) applied the total variation method to process the pre-compensated image. The result is slightly better but still suffers from a trade-off between contrast and acuity. Fundamentally, the impaired human eye can be seen as a low-pass filter, and either an increase of image aliasing or a decrease of contrast is inevitable. Other Approaches The research described above can be seen as an enhancement and a supplement of the original method carried out by Alonso (2003). However, as is stated, there is a limit of image pre-compensation by the PSF deconvolution method. Others has studied other on-screen methods to achieve a better outcome. Huang et al. (2012) introduced a multilayer approach based on the drawback of normal on screen pre-compensation that was shown by Yellot and Yellot (2007). This method is based on the deconvolution method, but uses a double-layer display rather than normal display. According to Fig.2, if we have two separated displays, then we have two different MTF curve. Then, the near-zero gap in MTF can be filled. This approach has showed a demonstrable improvement of contrast and brightness in their simulation. However, it required a transparent front display that does not block the light from the rear display at all, which is not plausible in practical use. Later, Pamplona et al. (2012) investigated a light field theory approach and built a monochrome dual-stack-LCD display (also known as parallax barriers) prototype and a lenticular-based display prototype to form directional light. Huang et al. (2014) restated the potential of using light field theory on image compensation and built another prototype with a parallax barrier mask and higher resolution. The outcome of both methods were similar. They could produce colour images with only a little decrease in contrast and acuity. However, it should be stated that both methods were carried out with a fixed directional light field, which used a fixed camera to photograph the intended corrected image. It is obvious that is not feasible in practical use with moving observer. Adjustable directional light has not been implemented due to the limits imposed by diffraction and resolution. In addition, there are minor issues on the loss of brightness as well in these research. Overall, the most applicable way of on-screen image compensation is still deconvolution method. The light field method requires very precise eye tracking to inject the light into pupil, while deconvolution only requires the observer to keep a certain distance and to be in front of the pre-compensated image. Method Subjects Implementation We built a program for the test that can proceed the pre-compensation in real-time using deconvolution method. This program can pre-compensate any aberration that can be represented by Zernike polynomials The experiment is based on adaptive staircase method. During the experiment, the program shows optotype Landolt-C in four directions (i.e. up, down, left and right) which is randomly generated at each trail. The subjects choose the direction of the Landolt-C. Staircase: This research intend to find two thresholds: contrast and size. Though the We shall describe the staircase method for the contrast threshold. The experiment for size threshold is taken likewise. The four characteristic for our adaptive staircase method are: The start value is relatively large since the subject The step-size The experiment ends in N trials after it reached the final level For our research, we cannot determine an ideal starting value because the subjects have different type and intensity of aberration. Thus, we have to change the size-step to make our experiment efficient. The threshold is calculated using the record the last N trails of the experiment, which is determined by the following equation: Eq.() The program was design as such that Assumptions, Approximations and Limitations Assumption: About Subjects Limitation: Polychromatic issues, No. of Pixels, Staircase References Alonso, M., Barreto, A. B. (2003, September). Pre-compensation for high-order aberrations of the human eye using on-screen image deconvolution. In Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, 2003. Proceedings of the 25th Annual International Conference of the IEEE (Vol. 1, pp. 556-559). IEEE. Alonso Jr, M., Barreto, A., Jacko, J. A., Adjouadi, M. (2006, October). A multi-domain approach for enhancing text display for users with visual aberrations. In Proceedings of the 8th international ACM SIGACCESS conference on Computers and accessibility (pp. 34-39). ACM. Campbell, C. E. (2003). A new method for describing the aberrations of the eye using Zernike polynomials. Optometry Vision Science, 80(1), 79-83. Cornsweet, T. N. (1962). The staircase-method in psychophysics. The American journal of psychology, 75(3), 485-491. Harvey, L. O. (1986). Efficient estimation of sensory thresholds. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, Computers, 18(6), 623-632. Huang, F. C., Wetzstein, G., Barsky, B. A., Raskar, R. (2014). Eyeglasses-free display: towards correcting visual aberrations with computational light field displays. ACM Transactions on Graphics (TOG), 33(4), 59. Huang, J., Barreto, A., Adjouadi, M. (2012, August). Dynamic image pre-compensation for computer access by individuals with ocular aberrations. In 2012 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (pp. 3320-3323). IEEE. Montalto, C., Garcia-Dorado, I., Aliaga, D., Oliveira, M. M., Meng, F. (2015). A total variation approach for customizing imagery to improve visual acuity. ACM Transactions on Graphics (TOG), 34(3), 28. Pamplona, V. F., Oliveira, M. M., Aliaga, D. G., Raskar, R. (2012). Tailored displays to compensate for visual aberrations. Roorda, A. (2011). Adaptive optics for studying visual function: a comprehensive review. Journal of vision, 11(5), 6-6. Schwiegerling, J. (2000). Theoretical limits to visual performance. Survey of ophthalmology, 45(2), 139-146. Yellott, J. I., Yellott, J. W. (2007, February). Correcting spurious resolution in defocused images. In Electronic Imaging 2007 (pp. 64920O-64920O). International Society for Optics and Photonics. Young, L. K., Love, G. D., Smithson, H. E. (2013). Different aberrations raise contrast thresholds for single-letter identification in line with their effect on cross-correlation-based confusability. Journal of vision, 13(7), 12-12. Van Loan, C. (1992). Computational frameworks for the fast Fourier transform (Vol. 10). Siam. Cramà ©r, H., Grenander, U. (1959). Probability and statistics: the Harald Cramà ©r volume. Almqvist Wiksell.   Ã‚  

Affirmative Action :: Affirmative Action Racism History Essays

Affirmative Action Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Though affirmative action may have been valuable in the beginning, it has long since outlived any usefulness it may have had. That it ever had any usefulness is questionable, based on comparisons between overall black populations socioeconomic standing today and that of the mid-1960’s. Today, it is little more than a scapegoat behind which inferior performance can hid very well, and that scapegoat’s upkeep has become far too extravagant in today’s society.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"We didn’t land on Plymouth Rock my brothers and sisters--Plymouth Rock landed on us,† Malcolm X’s observation is brought out by the facts of America history. Snatched from their native land transported thousands of miles--in a nightmare of disease and death and sold into slavery blacks were reduced into the legal status of farm animals. Even after emancipation, blacks were segregated from whites--in some states by law, in social practice almost everywhere. American apartheid continued for another century. In 1954 the Supreme Court declared state compelled segregation in schools unconstitutional, and it followed up that decisions with others that struck down many other forms of official segregation. Still discrimination survived, and in most southern states blacks were either discouraged or prohibited from excersizing their rights to vote. Not until the 1960’s was compulsory segregation finally and effectively challenged. Between 1 964 and 1968 congress passed the most sweeping legislation since the end of the Civil War. It banned discrimination in employment, public accommodation,( hotels, motels, restaurants, etc.), and housing; it also guaranteed voting rights for blacks in areas suspected of disenfranchising blacks. Today, several agencies in the federal government excursive sweeping powers to enforce these civil rights measures.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After the United States congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, it became apparent that certain business traditions, such as seniority, status and aptitude tests, prevented total equality in employment. The president Lyndon B. Johnson decided something needed to be done to remedy these flaws. On September 24, 1965 he issued an Executive Order #11246 at Howard University that required federal contractors â€Å"to take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed... without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin.† When President Johnson signed that order, he enacted one of the most discriminating pieces of legislation since the Jim Crow laws were passed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Affirmative action was first created in effort to help minorities leap the discriminative barriers that were ever so present when the bill first took action in 1965.

African Society

This study seek to highlight why some people in the case study felt that alcohol controlled behavior. This case study analysis individual unit ( e.g a person, group, or event) stressing developmental factors in relation to the study. The case study is common in social sciences and life sciences. Case studies may be descriptive or explanatory. The later type is used to explore causation in order to find underlying principles. They maybe prospective, in which criteria are established and cases fitting the criteria are included as they become available, or retrospective, in which criteria are established for selecting cases from historical records for including in the study. It also highlight how a belief in ancestors related to behavior (e.g overlooking ancestral directives, there by getting cursed and how some one blamed the behavior of some people on the names they were given from birth. The assertion that the person's behavior after which a child was named determined the behavior of the person who bore the name afterwards. And the extent theory of nature/reflection in the case study. Furthermore, this case study analyze the validity that behavior is a matter of tradition (e.g up bring of children by parents. DEFINATION According to Thomas (2011) â€Å"case studies are analyses of persons, events, decisions, periods, projects, policies, institutions, or other systems that are studied holistically by one or more methods. The case that is the subject of the inquiry will be an instance of a class of phenomena that provides an analytical frame- an object- within which the study is conducted and which the case illuminates and explicates† Silverman (2005) reveals that, rather than using samples following a rigid protocol (strict set of rules) to examine limited number of valuables, case study methods involve an in- depth, longitudinal (over a long period of time) examination of a single instance or event: a case. They provide a systematic way of looking at events, collecting data, analyzing information, and reporting the results. As a result the researcher may gain a sharpened understanding of why the instance happened as it did, and what might become important to look at more extensively in future research. Case studies lend themselves to both generating and testing hypothesis. According to Lamneck (2005) another suggestion is that case study should be defined as a research strategy, an empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon within it's real- life context. Case study research means single and multiple case studies, can include quantitative evidence, relies on multiple sources of evidence and benefits from the prior development of theoretical propositions. Case studies should not be confused with qualitative research and they can be based on any mix of quantitative and qualitative evidence. Single- subject research provides the statistical framework for making inferences from qualitative case- study data. This also supported and well formulated in (Lamneck, 2005): â€Å"the case study is a research approach, situated between concrete data taking techniques and methodological paradigms†. The case study is sometimes mistaken for the case method, but the two are not the same. Generalizing From case studies Kyekye (1996) states that, a critical case can be defined as having strategic importance in relation to the general problem (e.g like in Mwense district research where some people in the case study felt that alcohol controlled behavior) A critical case allows the following type of generalization, ‘if it is valid for this case, it is valid for all (or many) cases.' In it's negative form, the generalization would be, ‘if it is not valid in this case, then it is not valid for any (or only few) cases.'( Lamnek, 2005). According to Karl popper, the case study is also effective for generalizing using the type of test called falsification, which forms part of critical reflexivity. Falsification is one of the most rigorous tests to which a scientific proposition can be subjected: if just one observation does not fit with the proposition it is considered not valid generally and must therefore be either revised or rejected. Popper him self used the now famous example, â€Å"All swans are white, and proposed that just one observation of a single black swan would falsify this proposition and this way have general significance and stimulate further investigations and theory- building. The case study is well suited for identifying â€Å"black swans† because of it's in- depth approach: what appear to be â€Å"white† often turns on closer examination to be â€Å"black† By selecting cases strategically in this manner one may arrive at case studies that allow generalization (Flyrbjerg, 200 6, P. 225-6). Misunderstandings about case study Research According to Flyrbjerg (2006) identifies and corrects five prevalent misunderstanding about case study research: > General, theoretical Knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical knowledge. > One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case and, therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. > The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. > The case study contains a bias towards verification, i.e, a tendency to comfirm the researcher's preconceived notions. > It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies.(Osei, 1971). According to a research which was conducted in Mwense district some people in the case study felt that alcohol controlled behavior and to add value to the case study: > In the first stage of alcoholism, drinking was no longer social but became a means of emotional escape from problems, inhibitions, anxiety, and in many instances, from realities of life. Stated in another way, early in the disease problem drinkers starts to depend on the mood altering capabilities of alcohol consumption. Also at this stage of alcoholism, a gradual increase in tolerance develops, meaning that increasing amounts of alcohol are needed in order for the problem drinker to â€Å"feel the buzz† or to â€Å"get high†.(Flyvbjerg, 2006). Furthermore, it is common for people with a drinking problem in the first stage of alcoholism to quickly drink a few alcoholic beverage before attending social functions and to increase social drinking to 3 to 5 drinks per day. Obviously, it can be determined that such behavior will eventually result in a host of drinking problems. > In the second stage of alcoholism, the need to drink becomes more intense. During this stage of the disease, the individual with the drinking problem frequently starts to drink earlier in the day.(Lamnek, 2005) As tolerance increases, moreover, the person drinks because of dependence on alcohol, rather than because of emotional and psychological stress and anxiety relief. During this stage, loss of control does not yet happen on a regular basis; it is however, gradually observed by others such as neighbors, co- workers, relatives, friends, and family members. > In the third stage of alcoholism, the loss of control becomes more pronounced and more problematic. This means that the problem drinker is usually unable to drink according to his or her intentions. for example, once the person takes the first drink, he or she can no longer control what will happen, even though the intention might have been to have one or two drinks. During this stage of the disease, most problem drinkers start to experience serious alcohol- related, financial, employment, legal, and relationship problems.(Robert, 1970). > The fourth and final stage of alcoholism is characterized by a chronic loss of control. In the earlier stages of the disease, the alcoholic may have been successful in maintaining a job. Now, however, drinking starts earlier in the day and usually continues throughout the day. Few, if any, full- time work positions, however, can be maintained once an individual has reached this state of affairs.(Thomas,2011). Classic Alcoholic Behavior The term â€Å"alcoholism† means the same thing as â€Å"alcohol dependence,† â€Å"alcohol addiction, â€Å"and â€Å"alcohol dependence.† Hence, some people in the case study felt that alcohol controlled behavior in Mwense district because of the information articulated above, it is clear that the four stages of classic alcoholic behavior do not point a pretty picture of the sad realities and the drinking problems that most chronic alcoholics experience in Mwanse district. In fact, it is clear that as the disease progresses, so do the drinking problems that are experienced by the alcoholic. Perhaps the damaging and unhealthy consequences of this disease might not make much of an impact on those who are already alcohol dependant. It is hoped, however, that exposing the facts about this disease to our youth before they start abusing alcohol will prevent many of the teens from suffering the grim fate of most alcoholics. Belief In Ancestors Relates To Behavior A belief is a degree of certainty we have that something is true. Our core beliefs are often based on the beliefs of other people we unconsciously accepted as true when we were too young to decide if the person's belief really served us.(Osei, 1971). Hence, ancestral belief refers to a generalized belief about the amount of control people have over their own lives. Individuals who feel that they are very much in charge of their won destiny have an internal locus of control; those who think that events in their life are due mainly to fate/luck or powerful others have an external locus of control. Locus of control is a generalized belief, so people with an external locus can feel in control in familiar situations. (Steven L. Mcshane et al. 2005). Moreover, from the research, we have suggested that perception of people and events is organized into categories. How this is done depends partly on sensation, partly on the principles of perception, and partly on the nature of the individual. Another fact of the individual is the set of attitudes that he/she holds. Attitudes are, essentially, â€Å"feelings† towards people or things. How people feel, what they believe, what they intend to do, and whether and how they do it may all be connected, and may all be related to the process of perception. However, to try to reduce the confusion in this area over the use of words and concepts such as â€Å"feelings† and â€Å"beliefs† Fishbein (1967) put forward the following hierarchical model Beliefs What we think about people, things, relationship e.t.c Attitudes Affective responses to those people, things, relationships e.t.c Intentions Cognitive states Behavior or Action Observable events The Theory of Nature/Reflected In The Case Study The extent theory of nature/reflection in the case study refers to the personality. Personality defined as the pattern of relatively enduring ways in which a person feels, thinks and behaves. Fincham R. describes personality as the relatively enduring combination of traits which makes an individual unique and at the same time produces consistencies in his or her thought and behavior. A similar definition Rollision Derk defines personality as, ‘those relatively stable and enduring aspects of an individual that distinguish him/her from other people and at the same time form a basis for our predictors concerning his/her future behavior. (Rollison D., 1998). A complementary definition, Robbins Stephen defines personality as the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others. It is a relatively stable pattern of behaviors and consistent internal states that explain a person's behavioral tendencies. Hence, we say that personality explains behavioral tendencies because individuals' actions are not perfectly consistent with their personality profile in every situation. Personality traits are less evident in situations where social norms, reward systems and other conditions contrain behavior. Traits may be defined as individual characteristics of thought or feeling that result in tendencies to have in specific ways. Also traits may be defined as enduring characteristics that describe an individual's behavior. The more consistent the characteristic and the more frequently important that trait is in describing an individual. Traits can additionally be grouped to form personality types. Traits may be grouped into groups namely; surface traits and source traits. Surface traits for example assertiveness, can be observed in behavior while, source traits such as self- discipline can be inferred.(Rollinson, D. et ,1998). Behavior And Tradition According to Robert (1970) refer human behavior as a range of behaviors exhibited by humans and which are influenced by culture, attitudes, emotions, values, ethies, authority, rapport, hypnosis, persuasion, coercion and/or genetics. Hence, the behavior of people (and other organisms or even mechanisms) falls within a range with some behavior being common, some unusual, some acceptable, and some outside acceptable limits. In sociology, behavior in general is considered as having no meaning, being not directed at other people, and thus is the most basic human action. Behavior in this general sense should not be mistaken with social behavior, which is the more advanced action, as social behavior is behavior specifically directed at other people. The acceptability of behavior is evaluated relative to social norms and regulated by various means of social control. In addition, the behavior of people is studied by the academic disciplines of psychiatry, psychology, social work, sociology, economics, and anthropology. Factors affecting human behavior and actions Mcshane et al (2005) states five factors as below: * Genetics (see also evolutionary psychology) – affects and governs the individual's tendencies towards certain directions. * Attitude – the degree to which the person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of the behavior in question. * Social norms – the influence of social pressure that is perceived by the individual (normative beliefs) to perform or not perform a certain behavior. * Perceived behavioral control – the individual's belief concerning how easy or difficult performing the behavior will be. * Core faith – the person's set of beliefs, like religion, philosophy, e.t.c provided sometimes subconsciously, by his or her family, peers, social media, and the society where he or she lives. > Social Factors Factors that influence behavior or personality that arise from interacting with other people; early socialization, which consists in interaction with parents, siblings and peers has an effect on the way we act and think. The behaviorist school of psychology which views all human as environmentally determined refer to personality as just accumulated learning experiences (skinner, 1974). Much of personality comes through learning and so childhood experiences are paramount to the unfolding of personality. > Cultural Factors According to Kyekye (1996) a wider social beliefs, values and motives that are absorbed by an individual and guide behavior towards that which is acceptable within a particular social context; when high value is placed on achievement and individualism in a certain society, we will find that this may affect individual personality in instilling a trait of ‘the need to achieve'.(Shutte, 1993). > Situational Factors According to Osei (1971) this refers to the effect of a specific experience or situation on a person's feelings and behavior. And individual's personality, while generally stable and consistent, does change in different situations call forth different aspects of one's personality. Situations like church, tradition, a picnic in a picnic in a park do affect behavior differently. Examples here may be trauma of losing a parent or loved one. Certain situation can bring out unrecognized aspects of personality we have never been aware of. Personality development is an ongoing process, but to some degree personalities can be deemed as stable.(Senghor, 1963). According to Gyekye (1998), regard concepts of the individual and self to be almost totally dependant on and subordinate to social entities and cultural process. Kenya theology professor John S. Miti (1969 and 1992), for example, believes that individual has little latitude for self determination outside the context of the traditional African family and community. He writes: â€Å"whatever happens to the individual happens to the whole group, and whatever happens to the whole group happens to the individual. The individual can only say: â€Å"I am, because we are; and since we are, therefore I am.' This is a cardinal point in the understanding of the African view of man† (1969: 109). Furthermore, Ghanaian philosopher Gyekye (1998), the individual, although originating from and inextricably bound to his family and community, nevertheless possesses a clear concept of himself as a distinct person of volition. It is from this combined sense of personhood and communal membership that the family and community except individuals to take personality enhancing and socially responsible decisions. Although he accepts the dominant entity of African social order is the community, Gyekye believes â€Å"it would be more correct to describe that order as amphibious, for it manifests features of both community and individuality. African social thought seeks to avoid the excesses of the two exaggerated systems, while allowing for a meaningful albeit uneasy, interaction between the individual and the society (1988:31-32) According to senegales philosopher Leopold senghor (1966) regards tradition African society to be â€Å"based both on the community and on the person in which, because it was founded on dialogue and reciprocity, the group had priority over the individual without crushing him, but allowing to blossom as a person† (1966:5). According to South African philosophy professor Shutte (1993), citing the Xhosa proverb umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu (a person is a person through persons), writes: This (proverb) is the xhosa expression of a notion that is common all African languages and traditional cultures. It is concerned both with the peculiar interdependence of persons on others for the exercise, development and fulfillment of their powers that is recognized in African traditional thought, and also with the understanding of what it is to be a person that underlies this. In European philosophy of whatever kind, the self is always envisaged as something â€Å"inside† a person, or at least as a kind of container of mental properties and powers. In African thought it is seen as â€Å"outside† subsisting in relationship to what is other, the natural and social environment. According to Ghananian historian Osei (1971) believes that Africa should chart it's future from it's indigenous cultural traditions and adopt only those aspects of no- Africa cultures that are compatible with Africa's needs, goals and circumstances namely, a scientific perspective and western educational practices. Taking a broader perspective, Thairu (1975) argues for a future of greater regional integration through educational and cultural exchanges within and between African nations. This, he says, will bring into the open pan- Africa cultural similarities, promote more widespread understanding and tolerance on the continent, and contribute to greater overall African unit philosopher Gyekye (1998) shares much of Nyasani, Makgoba and Thairu concern over Africans too often for saking Indigenous African values and their wholesale and uncritical adoption. According to Gyekye (1996) abhors the fact that ancestors continue to be of paramount importance in modern and traditional African life. He also recommends that for Africa to progress scientifically and technologically, â€Å"science should be rescued from the morass of (traditional) African religious and mystical beliefs.† Gyekye insists there are main â€Å"cultural values and practices of traditional Africa that can be considered positive features of the culture and can be accommodated in the scheme of African modernity, even if they undergo some refinement and pruning to become fully harmonious with the spirit of modern culture and to function†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. satisfactorily within that culture â€Å"(ibid). he discusses these traditional African values at length under the humanity, brotherhood, communalism and individualism, morality, the family economic system, chief ship and politics, human rights, knowledge and wisdom, aesthetics. CONCLUSION It is clear from the foregoing study that behavior is affected by numerous factors as discussed in this paper. Among the factors are ancestral directives, alcohol, belief, culture, emotions values, ethics, authority, rapport, hypnosis, persuasion, coercion, genetics, attitudes, situational e.t.c.

Pilgrimage of Grace

DBQ Pilgrimage of Grace The Pilgrimage of Grace was to protest Henry VIII’s actions such as his Act of Supremacy. This lead to the implementation of new polices such as taxes, the expansion of the royal power in the North of England, the dissolution of monasteries, and the confiscation of Catholic Church lands. These actions took their toll on the country, and led to the Pilgrimage of Grace from October 1536 to February 1537. The Pilgrimage consisted of marches and protests and armed demonstrations. The re-creation of a banner of a marcher depicts God suffering, a plow and a cattle horn.This symbolizes the motivation for the Pilgrimage of Grace. It can represent the peasants who are suffering just as Jesus did (3). Peasants, clergy and gentlemen were involved in the Pilgrimage of Grace. Each of these groups of people had a distinct part in the pilgrimage. Those who opposed the movement killed many of the rebels, as they feared the rebellion of authority. The participants of th e Pilgrimage of Grace were concerned for their country and safety from enemies, and therefore, their goals were more representation, and a restoration of the Catholic organizations such as monasteries.The peasants and clergy were the largest group in the Pilgrimage of Grace, and the most affected by Henry VIII’s actions. Due to the closure of the monasteries by the government, the peasants made a declaration that they must now rely on charity, faith, poverty, and that they must be ready to help one another should thieves or Scots try to rob them (2). This reason for protest contradicts other reasons such as the â€Å"Oath of Honorable Men†, which states that one should not enter the Pilgrimage for wordy gain, but for his love of God (1).The Catholic clergy, who now could not practice their faith in England, had their land taken away and were heavily convicted by the government, as shown in the lyrics to a ballad a monk wrote, â€Å"†¦And held in bonds. Robbed, sp oiled and shorn†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (4). The clergy and peasants were concerned for their future in northern England, and protested to get back the land and religion, which the government had taken from them. Gentlemen also were involved in the Pilgrimage of Grace.Some who were members of Parliament did not like Thomas Cromwell’s influence on the King, which took power from the Parliament. In an anonymous pamphlet, Cromwell is called a traitor and that he should be removed from office to restore authority to Parliament (6). Robert Aske gives the goals of all those who participated in the Pilgrimage in his petition to the member of the King’s Council, which includes having the head of the church be the pope in Rome, to have Thomas Crowell punished, and to have the monasteries and church lands restored (5).Throughout the Pilgrimage, there were riots in which both commoners and gentlemen were involved (8). Many of them were arrested and convicted. The closing of the monastery w as a detriment to the country in the eyes of the gentlemen, as can be seen in Robert Aske’s testimony, in which he asks the king to return to the ways of the Catholic Church (11). Although many common people, clergy, and gentlemen supported the Pilgrimage, it was opposed by the creators of these laws, King Henry, and high ranking officials.In Richard Madison’s â€Å"A Remedy for Sedition†, Madison argues that the inferior must be content that the wiser rule them, which is necessary in a commonwealth. If this order isn’t in place, then no one would obey and there would be chaos (7). Nicholas Leche criticizes the gentlemen who did not stand up against the opposition in his testimony (8). Henry VII himself gives a speech pardoning the commoners would have rebelled against him on the grounds of ignorance, so long as they immediately stop protesting and submit to his monarchy (9).In the trials against those involved in the Pilgrimage of Grace, 67 percent of th e gentlemen tried were convicted, and 62 percent of the peasants that were tried were convicted. In comparison, 80 percent of the clergy tried were convicted. This reflects heavy opposition against the clergy, who in the government’s eyes were the cause of the Pilgrimage. In spite of the efforts of the participants of the pilgrimage of Grace, none of their goals were met. England was not reconciled to the Catholic Church, nor did the monasteries reopen. Cromwell’s moves toward Protestantism were final.